Pastoralism is the main livelihood in many drylands, mountainous and other areas, where other forms of agricultural practices are not feasible. Pastoralists contribute to efficient management and governance of rangelands and protection of natural resources. In such challenging territories pastoralism presents the best livelihood strategy to provide food, income and employment. These benefit pastoral communities, but also those living in farming areas, urban centres and coastal regions.” These words open the pastoralists’ and extensive livestock breeders’ statement that was adopted by pastoralists’ representatives from Africa, Latin America and Asia at the special session on pastoralism at IFAD’s Farmers’ Forum. The statement makes a number of recommendations to policy makers – and especially to IFAD – on how to support them through both investment and inclusion in policy dialogue.

Empowerment

Pastoralists are marginalised in most parts of the world and are rarely consulted on policies that affect them. While societies and citizens increasingly recognise the value of pastoralism, many still regard it as backward and as a threat to national security. Some ministries or policies still try to lure (or even force) pastoralists into permanent settlements. While pastoralists want their voices to be heard, they are often not given the opportunity for this, and they lack the ability or the tools to organise and gain political influence. This may be because the issues are technical in nature (for example in food safety), policymakers are unwilling to subject drafts to scrutiny by advocacy groups, or pastoralists are poorly organised politically. As outlined in their statement, pastoralists need more support in capacity building and institutional strengthening of local, national, regional and international organisations and their networks. Strengthened pastoralist organisations can more effectively engage in policy dialogue, advocate for their interests and contribute to initiatives that benefit pastoralism. For example, pastoral parliamentary groups have appeared in some countries (e.g. in Ethiopia, Kenya, Uganda and India) to press for pastoralists’ interests at the national level (see page 8). At the international level, initiatives, such as the the World Initiative for Sustainable Pastoralism (WISP) and the Pastoralists’ Knowledge Hub, aim to strengthen regional networks of pastoral civil society and facilitate their participation in policy dialogue.

Land rights and tenure

Pastoralists rely on livestock mobility and communal land for their livelihoods. Access to land and tenure rights remain a major concern for pastoralists worldwide. Rules on land tenure vary widely among countries, but most formal legal systems do not recognise or guarantee customary tenure rights. The discovery of oil and minerals, the expansion of intensive cropping, urbanisation and the designation of nature reserves and wildlife parks have boosted interest in pastoralist territories. Such uses often occupy the best-watered land, cutting off herders’ access to pastures and water sources they rely on in the dry season. These uses also contaminate natural resources. As written in their statement, “often investments come in the name of public interest and national development but directly and indirectly they harm our livelihoods by grabbing land, water and other natural resources.”

In order to guarantee access and user rights to land and water, governments have to recognise and protect customary land-tenure rights, traditional rules and rangeland management norms, and communities should be able to formalise their customary and collective tenure. Formalising customary land tenure using group Certificates of Customary Right of Occupancy (CCRO) is one tool that has had some success in Tanzania. In the context of Tanzanian national law CCROs provide legal rights to communities to resist land grabbing and manage their natural resources according to their way of life (see interview on page 32).

Pastoralists at the Farmers’ Forum
 
IFAD’s Farmers’ Forum is a bottom-up process of consultation and dialogue between smallholder farmers’ and rural producers’ organisations from all over the world and IFAD and its member states. A special session on pastoralism preceded the sixth meeting, held in February 2016. The special session and its statement were the result of a participatory consultation process that was facilitated by Vétérinaires Sans Frontières International (VSF-Int) and its members. Five regional meetings of pastoralist civil society organisations (in West and Central Africa, East and Southern Africa, North Africa and West Asia, Central and Southern Asia and Latin America) were organised to prepare for the special session. In parallel, VSF surveyed pastoralist practices and realities in seven pastoralism ‘hotspots’: the Arkhangai in Mongolia; the Altiplano and Chaco in South America; Wagadou and Gourma in the Sahel; Tiris Zemmour in the Sahara and the Afar and Chalbi areas in the Horn of Africa.

Supporting mobility

Mobility is key to enhancing livestock production as the herds move in search of pastures and water. Mobility is also strategic for trading as well as to manage risk due to drought, conflict, disease outbreak, or in other periods of hardship. Restricting mobility poses serious challenges to pastoralists’ livelihoods, economy and overall security. In West Africa, for instance, there is an historical interdependence between the landlocked Sahelian countries and the coastal countries in the south. Sahelian pastoralists move with their herds to neighbouring coastal countries to find pastures during the lean period (transhumance corridors), while high demand markets in the coastal countries welcome their livestock and products (marketing corridors). However, the increasing obstacles to convey their herds across different territories or to get access to watering points, as well as the high administrative burdens (high and even illegal taxation), are a major concern for millions of pastoralists.

Often investments harm our livelihoods by grabbing land, water and other natural resources

Fair markets for pastoral products

Pastoralism is a major contributor to the economy of many countries. In Sudan, for example, it accounts for 80 % of the agricultural gross domestic product. Pastoral communities seek additional and better marketing options to ensure they receive fair prices for their products. A typical example is meat, milk and dairy products. When producing these products, pastoralists often ensure high standards of animal welfare and environmental protection. Despite the high demand for these products and services by urban consumers, the way in which value chains are managed or governed does not accordingly benefit pastoralists.

Efforts and investments are needed to tip the balance in favour of pastoralists. For instance, adequate and accessible infrastructure, education, technical training to guarantee quality standards of livestock products, capacity building and micro finance are some practical measures mentioned by pastoralists.

Moreover, value-added products are an especially important source of income for women who face additional constraints such as unequal access to resources and decision making roles. The role of women in a Mongolian pastoralists’ cooperative shows that women’s participation in fair markets can lead to improved gender relations as well as food security for households. The Arvidjin Ar Delgerekh cooperative in the Khangai mountains focused on the yak fibre production and processing. Women took on the role of spinning and knitting baby yak fibre. Compared with previousely selling raw yak fibre to middlemen, the yarn and knitted products are a way for women to contribute to their families’ income. Moreover, the women’s active role has led to a more inclusive governance of the cooperative itself. Evolution of camel milk marketing in northern Somalia (Puntland and Somaliland) has also shown how women’s agency is critical in fostering social change and economic development under difficult conditions.

Adapted services

Pastoralist areas are often poorly provided with basic services compared to other areas in the same country. In northeastern Kenya, for example, only one-third of primary-aged children are enrolled in school: half the national rate. Only a tiny minority of children attend secondary school, few households have access to electricity, safe drinking water or pre-natal care and, only half the children are vaccinated. Similar discrepancies are found in other countries.

As well, provision of animal-health services is extremely important to pastoralists, not only to protect their livestock assets (which ultimately assures their food security) but also because such services are often the only link to public institutions. Health (both for humans and for animals) and education services are needed that are adapted to the mobile lifestyle of pastoralism. These services may be mobile themselves, such as the mobile schools programme which moves with the Turkana in Kenya, or offered at convenient locations, such as at different fixed sites in each season. One way to promote animal health services to mobile and dispersed populations is through Community Based Animal Health Workers (CAHWs): livestock keepers that have been trained and provided with a basic animal health kit, and who work at community level in permanent connection with a veterinarian.

“We are part of the solution”

Today, herders are not only asking for services for their livestock, or rights to their lands. They demand for their recognition as citizens of a wider society: “Pastoralism is more than livestock production; it is a way of life, a culture and an identity. We pastoralists are citizens and our rights, culture and customary institutions should be recognised and respected.”

Rather than regarding pastoralists as a problem, policy makers should see them as a major ally and indispensable contributor to the safe governance and sustainable management of sparsely populated, marginal areas. Efforts to support pastoralism need to be focused on the local area or territory (which might involve a regional framework), rather than on national-level policies. They need to build on the pastoralists’ own knowledge, traditional organisations and social networks; recognise and protect customary landtenure rights; and support herders’ mobility also through the provision of adapted services.

Margherita Gomarasca (coordinator@vsf-international.org) and Michele Nori (michele.nori@eui.eu) work for and collaborate with Vétérinaires Sans Frontières International.

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Vullnet Alushani immigrated to Italy from Albania in 1999. There, he began working for the Bramante, a traditional Gargano Podolico Caciocavallo producer in the Apulia region. Caciocavallo is one of the special Slow Food cheeses made from the milk of Podolica cows – a breed once common throughout most of mainland Italy. The breed is now restricted to some regions in Southern Italy. It didn’t take long for Vullnet to learn and master the skills needed to produce Podolico Caciocavallo. He is not only appreciated for his extraordinary cheeses but also for his contribution to carrying on the tradition of the Bramante family.

The rural world, the cradle of socio-cultural traditions, local identity and Euro-Mediterranean heritage, survives and evolves thanks to the presence and contribution of immigrants like Vullnet. Nowadays, flows of immigrants from other Mediterranean pastoral regions contribute significantly to tackling the social and economic mismatch of the rural labour markets. They do so by filling the gaps left by the national population. Despite the policy and financial commitment of the European Union through its Common Agricultural Policy (CAP), the decline and ageing of rural populations is a major concern for policy-makers at different levels. This rings even truer for mountainous areas where pastoralism plays a primary socio-economic and ecological role.

Shifting generations and communities

The typical profile of a migrant shepherd in southern Europe is a man aged between 25 and 40 and native to another Mediterranean country (predominantly Romania, Morocco, Albania or Macedonia). History, language, and migrants’ networks have shaped the different migratory patterns. Romanians are found mostly in Italy and parts of Spain, Moroccans in parts of Spain and southern France, and Albanians in Greece. Although not always from a pastoralist background, most of them come with previous experience in animal breeding. Sociocultural differences aside (e.g. Orthodox or Muslim in predominately Catholic societies), these shepherds are generally appreciated for their technical skills, as well as for their endurance, flexibility and adaptability. Fiorino, a Romanian shepherd explains: “We are organised and upon demand we can seek for more workers from our networks, mostly in our villages in north-eastern Romania. There, everybody used to keep sheep. Most households produced their own cheese, that is where we have learnt. We know how to deal with sheep.”

The working and living conditions of immigrant shepherds are concerning

Filling knowledge gaps

Despite its many benefits, immigrants lack some technical knowledge. Coming from nations with different policy frameworks, immigrants often lack knowledge of CAP and related agro-environmental measures. Depending on their background, they might not be familiar with the adequate management of large herds, forestry resources, wildlife presence and relationships with protected areas, as well as farming plots of their host communities. Training and education programmes, such as the existing pastoral schools in France and Spain could be one consistent way to fill these gaps (see page 37). Extending and connecting these experiences would also enhance discussion about and promotion of this sector.

Vulnerable populations

But the working and living conditions of immigrant shepherds are concerning in most cases. The contractual conditions are often informal or partially legal with monthly salaries typically lower than 1000 Euros per month for fulltime engagement.

Opportunities for migrant shepherds to improve their socio-economic status are very limited, even after many years of operating in this sector. In this respect, there are few examples of immigrant shepherds that have graduated as independent livestock owners or dairy entrepreneurs. Lack of financial resources and limited access to land and credit are the main factors inhibiting the capacity and the interest of these workers to remain in this sector. This is exacerbated by constraints related to residence permits, entrepreneurial licenses and overall citizenship rights, including compliance with CAP procedures and rules.

History repeats

Migratory flows have long proven to be an important factor for resilience and sustainability of pastoralism, as well as crucial for keeping these territories productive. Rural succession in pastoral areas based on immigration is not new in the Mediterranean. The 20th century has witnessed a number of migrations of pastoral communities within the region. Sardinians colonised abandoned pasturelands in central Italy, Piedmont’s shepherds moved to work in the French Provence, southern Spanish herders moved to graze the Pyrenees, and Valach and Arvanite shepherds moved throughout Greece.

Working together

To address these constraints, sometimes immigrant shepherds partner with local ones. For instance, Mario, a Romanian shepherd, came to Italy ten years ago. Initially, he worked without a contract or insurance. Seven years ago, he got a contract which finally made him eligible for Italian citizenship. Italian citizenship is needed to register as an entrepreneur and to legally own a flock. With his savings he was able to accumulate a few animals each year, which he kept within the flock of his employer. Recently, he and his employer have been talking about jointly managing a common flock. They plan to share the costs and responsibilities, as well as the profits. With an established business, Mario will be able to bring his wife and children to Italy.

Other examples of such socio-economic graduation exist where two immigrants have shared resources and responsibilities or in areas where pasture lands are communal and therefore more easily accessible. Yet in general, this is a lose-lose situation. Migrant shepherds do not evolve in their socio-economic role and elderly livestock owners do not find people capable of taking over their herds when they retire. According to FAO, about one quarter of the EU flock has been lost in the last two decades. The disappearance of pastoral flocks and the abandonment of pasturelands has environmental and socio-cultural repercussions that impact society at large.

Importing the future

For many reasons, keeping pastoralism alive is key to ensuring that large parts of the Mediterranean remain vibrant and productive. As a main source of income and employment in mountainous and arid areas, pastoralism contributes to managing the rich yet fragile natural resource base. Thus it plays a crucial role in maintaining local landscapes, identities and socio-cultural heritage.

Yet without decent living and working conditions for today’s shepherds, the future of pastoralism is uncertain. Therefore, rural development actors should pay more attention to the potential for integrating immigrant shepherds as tomorrow’s livestock keepers and dairy entrepreneurs. This would also help tackle depopulation and abandonment of difficult territories, and support activities that enhance their sustainable management – the goal of most national and European policies.

Sustainable pastoralism will not be merely the result of subsidies and incentives, but rather the outcome of a comprehensive, integrated policy framework, including the review of agricultural, trade, migration and labour market policies. And together with the development of tailored initiatives and adequate investments. The viability of shepherding, the attractiveness of mountainous areas, the profitability of extensive livestock production along with efforts to support integration of foreign shepherds are the key challenges for the future of an ancient activity that is vital for the Mediterranean identity and for the resilience of its territories.

Michele Nori (Michele.Nori@eui.eu) is a Marie Curie research fellow at the Migration Policy Centre, European University Institute. Within the framework of the TRAMed project, he investigates the presence and contribution of migratory flows characterising contemporary pastoralism in Mediterranean EU.

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