Underutilised, orphan, forgotten, minor, neglected, indigenous, traditional plant species. These are but a few of the names for the plant species that are ignored in mainstream policy and research. Out of 7000 plant species that have been used for human food consumption since the beginning of agriculture, just three crops (rice, maize and wheat) provide 60 % of the world͛s plant-based calories and proteins today (FAO). Going against the grain, farmers and others around the world are embarking on initiatives that revalue the nutritional, ecological and cultural values of plants which, from here on will be referred to as ͚traditional͛. This issue of Farming Matters presents a kaleidoscope of such experiences.

Why are so few plant species valued?

In colonial times, traditional plants and foods were often associated with notions of ͚primitive͛, and left to marginalised sectors of society. A second wave of undervaluation came from the 1960s onwards with the Green Revolution. A food and farming system based on intensifying the cultivation of only a few crops – rice, wheat and maize, bred for routine application of fertilizers, pesticides and irrigation – was promoted. Diversity in traditional crops, farming techniques and diets was replaced with monoculture and monotony.

Today the marginalisation of the majority of plant species in science, policy, education, development, production and consumption is evident. For instance, most research, food aid and public procurement programmes focus exclusively on the dominant crops, creating situations where farmers are convinced or coerced into cultivating them. In turn, and often via global food chains, where power is concentrated in the hands of just a few retailers who invest heavily in marketing campaigns, these are the crops that end up on the plates of consumers. And so we are witnessing the loss of the knowledge and cultural heritage associated with cultivating, processing and preparing many plant species.

Traditional plants and agroecology

So what makes people revalue traditional crops? For one, because of the great richness and diversity that can be found among the plant species that do not dominate the global food system, but do provide at least a quarter of the world’s plant-based food. And due to their many positive contributions, these plants are a central element in the agroecological transition.

Diversification is a major motivation for a return to traditional crops. The negative consequences of intensive use of (often expensive) external inputs such as pesticides and fertilizers provide an incentive for growing a variety of different species to manage pests, diseases and soil fertility. Traditional crops are a key component of such diversification strategies. In the absence of external inputs, traditional varieties often outperform improved varieties and with climate change, traditional drought-resistant crops, sometimes improved through careful farmer selection, offer resilience and stability. Moreover, this strategy supports farmers͛ autonomy as they can circumvent the industrial seed and chemical industries.

Importantly, a range of traditional crops such as millet are more nutritious than the major crops such as maize. Finally, the cultivation, preparation and consumption of traditional plants is a way of reinforcing cultural identity and is an important survival strategy amongst migrant communities (see Planting roots with non-timber forest products) and those building peace in the aftermath of war (see Youth find hope in crops of their elders).

For all these reasons farmers worldwide actively manage and maintain their diverse traditional plants and crops, and both rural and urban citizens are discovering and appreciating their uses.

Likewise, scientists are seeking alternatives to the green revolution technology package and are revaluing traditional species, while policy makers such as governments and the FAO are recognising the value of such species for food and nutrition security.

But revaluing traditional crops is not easy, as it requires vision, creativity and stamina to go against the mainstream. Moreover, traditional crops also have their disadvantages. For instance, millets take a longer time to cook than rice and post-harvest processing of lupin is water and labour intensive. The processes of production and preparation of some ͚forgotten͛ crops also have been forgotten, while ͚modern tastes͛ often favour so called ͚modern foods͛, usually containing wheat, rice or maize. And not everybody is able to make the transition. Some Indian farmers, who have been monocropping groundnuts since the 70s, are facing big problems because of climate change. Some have quit groundnut cultivation and returned to millet-based diverse systems, whereas others quit farming altogether, and others decided to quit life as they could not stand the idea of lifelong indebtedness to the bank.

Underutilised by whom?
 
The trend to revalue traditional crops merits a word of caution. Does the hyperdominance of a few crops mean that the rest are truly undervalued? For example, the pulse crop lupin is undergoing a worldwide revival, but for small scale farmers in the highlands of Ecuador, this crop has always been an essential part of their diets. The label ͚underutilised͛ should be regarded in its geographical, social, historical, and economic context. Recognising this and questioning the narrative of ͚underutilised plant species͛ is a way of challenging the politics of oblivion, as argued by Mariam Mayet.
 
Moreover, the promotion of traditional plant species might actually accelerate or create problems. A few decades ago quinoa was considered the ͚lost crop of the Incas͛. Recent campaigns that promoted its integration into global value chains have been successful in popularising the crop. But dramatic changes in quinoa producing regions raise questions about the impact of bringing traditional crops into global food systems. As Didier Bazile points out on Fair and sustainable, these changes can negatively impact crop diversity, soil conservation, community cohesion and local food and nutrition security. Similarly, the commercial promotion of traditional non-timber forest products can be dangerous when governance mechanisms, such as land tenure, are not in place to curb exploitation of the species.

Farmers’ knowledge

As the value of traditional plants gains greater recognition, so must the knowledge, culture and expertise on growing and preparing these. This knowledge can take many forms. For example, in the Gamo Highlands of Ethiopia, farmers use song, dance and food to hand over knowledge about their crops. Hence, promoting traditional plants must go hand in hand with respecting the custodians of this knowledge – the food producers themselves. Kylie Lingard points this out with the case of an expanding indigenous ͚bush foods͛ industry in Australia which does not yet fairly acknowledge the indigenous peoples.

Moreover, exchange between farmers and with others is a way to generate old and new knowledge about these foods. This is seen in India (see Making millets matter in Madhya Pradesh) where farmers participate in exchanges across the country to share their experiences with reviving minor millets. An initiative to revitalise lupin in Ecuador owes part of its success to the equal partnership between technicians and farmers (see Lupin regains ground in Central Ecuador). The protection of farmers͛ knowledge and their farming models remains a key point of attention, as learnt from the quinoa experience.

A holistic approach is needed

As neglect of traditional crops has occurred at several levels, within seed systems, on farmers͛ fields, along market chains, on people͛s plates and in research, education and policy, a holistic approach is needed to turn the tide. Initiatives that build alliances between actors at these different levels are particularly successful as they enable coordinated efforts to make fundamental changes to the whole food system. For instance, recognising the link between traditional crops and foods calls for collaborations between farmers and people who process, prepare, package, distribute and eat food. In Canada, new links between farmers and chefs have increased awareness and popularity of heritage grains. Likewise food festivals in India and Ethiopia that celebrate food cultures, garner citizen support for traditional foods in both urban and rural areas. Furthermore, as illustrated with an example from Germany (see Linking food choice with biodiversity), there are increasing numbers of citizen-led initiatives that strengthen their relationships with farmers around traditional crops.

Support for emerging initiatives to revalue traditional plants must also come from policy. For instance through national research programmes that value farmers͛ knowledge on these crops and through public procurement programmes that source traditional foods from family farmers. Changes to the Public Distribution System in India, to include minor millets next to rice, wheat and maize, are a good example of how traditional crops can be supported. Mariam Mayet argues for policy change that supports farmer-managed seed systems and likewise Didier Bazile explains that changes to international seed regulations is needed to promote farmers’ access to diverse and high quality seeds.

Resilience and resistance

This issue of Farming Matters shows that traditional plant species are part and parcel of family farming rooted in agroecology, and that there are many ways to revalue them. It is clear that this always goes together with the revival of traditional dishes, food cultures, and with greater diversity. It is imperative that markets be created specifically for traditional plants and foods that are produced in an agroecological way by family farmers. This can lead to more diverse, nutritious food and healthier people that feel more connected to their food. Traditional crops build resilience and resistance – for farmers, and for anyone who eats.

Madeleine Florin (m.florin@ileia.org), Diana Quiroz (d.quiroz@ileia.org) and Janneke Bruil (j.bruil@ileia.org) work at ILEIA (www.ileia.org).

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In the whole of Africa and especially in my country, Zimbabwe, our elders cultivated crops not just for the sake of growing food but also for many other purposes, including for health, their relationship with nature, and their cultural and spiritual practices that are important to identity and belonging. Moreover, after many decades of unsuccessful experience with the green revolution, we have seen that traditional crops are easier to grow. Thus, where l come from, many smallholder farmers are now abandoning hybrid crops grown with a lot of fertilizers and other chemicals, and are replacing them with a wide variety of traditional ones.

In the cities of Zimbabwe, l have witnessed an increasing demand for foods based on traditional crops. Medical practitioners are recommending such foods to their patients suffering from various ailments. Herbal pharmacies and food outlets that serve organic dishes based on traditional crops are now common and popular among urban dwellers. The link between traditional crops and local culture is direct. Some crops have meaningful local names related to our culture, some of which reflect their relation with women. For example, some traditional maize varieties are called mbuya usafe, meaning grandmother do not die; and mukadzi usaende, meaning my wife do not run away. Small grains such as rapoko (finger millet) and mapfunde (sorghum) and mhunga (pearl millet) are used in traditional ceremonies. And pulses such as cowpeas and beans have always been present on our farms, enriching our diets and also the soils. They are easily intercropped, and you can dry the leaves and have vegetables all year round.

To keep cultural eating habits and practices alive, as women, we play a big role. We are well aware of different crops and varieties, and their importance to the health of the family. Preserving seeds and the various ways of processing them are also women’s roles. l take advantage of the many meetings and conferences l attend to talk about the importance of these traditional crops and their relation with women. My own experiences with these traditional crops while growing up in a community and family has given me strength to speak out and I encourage other women to raise their voices as well.

Our messages are clear: we want our governments to protect our traditional crops and not to introduce costly new varieties which require agrochemicals which damage nature and our health. We cannot let our culture die. We need resources to raise awareness of the benefits of traditional crops, particularly among the new generation that is being seduced by unhealthy food.

Elizabeth Mpofu (eliz.mpofu@gmail.com) is the General Coordinator of La Via Campesina and the chairperson of the Zimbabwe Organic Smallholder Farmers Forum (ZIMSOFF). She is Farming Matters regular columnist for 2016.

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As farmers we have been entrusted with the seed for thousands of years. If we – the small farmers – do not continue to grow diverse, unique crops that are open pollinated and adaptable to the climate, we lose control of our food source,” said my mum Shelley, expanding on the importance of seed sovereignty, not only for Canadian food sovereignty, but also for farmers and consumers.

My parents, Shelley and Tony, have been farming for more than 28 years. They own and operate 97 hectares not far from Ottawa. Two years ago, in 2014, they decided to use about 16 hectares of their land to grow heritage grains for local markets. These are old varieties or species of grains that have not been hybridised or genetically modified to fit mainstream farming practices and have, as a result, been largely forgotten or neglected. This is important in a country where the diversity of grains has been dwindled down to almost nothing with the majority of farmers growing only a few varieties of maize, wheat and barley. Developing new and alternative production models and markets is therefore at the heart of Shelley and Tony’s efforts to revive heritage grains.

Growing Against the Grain

They aptly named their new venture ‘Against the Grain’ and started experimenting with a range of wheat and barley varieties – Purple Ethiopian Barley, Scottish Bere Barley, Tibetan Barley, Blue Utrecht Wheat, Einkorn Wheat, Black Emmer Wheat, Brazilian Laurus Wheat, Kamut and White Sonoma Wheat– amongst others. Although wheat and barley were not domesticated in Canada, generations of selection and breeding by Canadian farmers has resulted in locally-adapted heritage varieties. For instance, beta-glucan barley, which Tony and Shelley grow and sell, directly from the farm and, online. This variety was researched and developed specifically for the Canadian food market.The rarity of these grains created practical challenges, from difficulties to source enough seeds to acquiring suitable equipment to harvest, thrash, clean and store the grains. On top of this, finding other farmers who’ve grown these crops and can share information on the history and provide tips and tricks of the trade has been difficult. Overcoming these challenges has been a lesson in persistence. Each year Shelley and Tony learn more about the grains’ growing characteristics – planting time, row spacing, favoured soil type, resistance to wind and fungus and time to maturity. For instance, last spring it became evident that a number of these older varieties needed an additional step in the cleaning process to remove the hard outer shell of the grain and the long bracts. While it was not easy to find them, they have also been able to connect with other farmers who have, for instance, helped them with the equipment needed for harvest. Shelley and Tony are members of the Ontario Ecological Farmers Association. The organisation helps to connect farmers across Ontario looking to grow alternative grains, create seed banks and who are interested in small farm ownership. The membership has enabled them to connect with other like minded farmers along the way.

Heritage grains

‘Heritage’ and ‘ancient’ are often used interchangeably. Heritage grains are an alternative to so called mass-market grains and are seen as a part of the resistance against the consolidated seed industry. Three quarters of the worlds’ seed market is controlled by ten companies who concentrate on only a few crops and varieties. For example, in Canada, 95 % of seeds used to grow major crops are bred for uniformity and performance under routine use of synthetic inputs. Heritage grains are also becoming more popular amongst consumers where their superior nutritional properties are recognised and marketed. For example, purple corn has between 15 and 20 % more of the eight essential amino acids found in yellow corn.

New partnerships, new markets

Beyond the farm gate, the challenge of this adventure continues as markets still need to be created for nonGMO, open pollinated and non-patented seeds in Canada. This is where the connection between seeds and food comes in, and the role of building relationships between farmers and consumers. Shelley has invested in creating new partnerships with bakers, artisans, chefs and businesses across southern Ontario. As a result, several chefs and bakers in the Ottawa area now use Against the Grain products. For instance, one chef is substituting imported rice with Against the Grain barley berries. And a bakery in Ottawa sells various pastries and pies made with their barley flour and purple corn meal. Moreover, Against the Grain is currently working together with an enterprise that supplies food to 1200 schools to develop a healthy cookie made from barley flour.

There is increasing awareness amongst chefs and consumers about the importance of how grains are grown
There is increasing awareness amongst chefs and consumers about the importance of how grains are grown, and the correlation between non-GMO products and health. The response from customers has been overwhelming, particularly when consumers understand the health benefits of whole grains. “Seeing people interested and wanting to know more about heritage and Canadian grains is proof that there’s power to create change within the food and agriculture system,” said Shelley. A challenge in this arena has been to meet all the regulations for the processing of the grains, such as getting approval and meeting food processing and health standards for the millers that Against the Grain works with.

Keeping seed diversity alive

Shelley continues to work with new partners to build and broaden the movement to keep the seed genetic diversity alive in Canada. Against the Grain is working with scientists from the University of Manitoba to trial different varieties of grains to determine the suitability and productivity of these grains in various Canadian climates. Currently, three varieties of hulless oats – which are crosses of different heritage grains – are being tested.Wanting to maintain and expand seed diversity, Against the Grain donates their heritage seeds to organisations such as Seeds of Diversity and USC Canada, who have created seed banks with more than a thousand rare Canadian-adapted seed varieties. This project is organised through the Canadian Bauta Initiative, which works with various organisations to preserve rare varieties of seeds for future generations. And this spring, Shelley and Tony initiated a ’Grow a Row’ project on their farm – a community initiative where gardeners and farmers share their excess produce with local soup kitchens and food banks. As part of this effort, high school students will be growing heirloom tomatoes on Shelley and Tony’s farm and donate the produce to a local food bank.

While it’s never easy to take a different course than society dictates, Shelley has always been a believer in the notion that small steps can have big impacts: “We have the power to create change, one seed at a time.”

Kristen Spruit (kristen.spruit@gmail.com) is a communications student and journalism graduate. Her passion for travel has taken her to more than 40 countries around the world, providing inspiration for her second passion: writing. For more information visit www.againstthegrainfarms.ca

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In 2009, three friends and I subrented a warehouse in Kreuzberg, one of Berlin’s central neighborhoods. For organics, just as with conventional food chains, the control of the large retail groups is growing. This leaves almost no space for small producers. We wanted to shorten distribution chains and engage in trade with independent producers and production cooperatives and to start collective action towards food sovereignty. This is how Schnittstelle, our retail cooperative, was born. The principle is simple. Schnittstelle aims to distribute cooperatively produced foods, seeds and beverages to consumers interested in supporting alternative forms of economy and agriculture. The producers we work with, many of them located in the vicinities of Berlin, are usually part of a Community Supported Agriculture scheme or related networks of solidarity, and seek to increase their retailing opportunities. A number of the producers are agricultural cooperatives, for instance, we source pasta from the Iris Collective, a community that has been farming since the 1970s. Upon delivering their own goods many producers buy food from other collectives right away. Other customers are members of food or housing cooperatives.

When we start working with producers, together we assess our ideological compatibility. For example, we check if we share the same idea of ‘organic’. Afterwards we discuss selling prices to find an ‘economically correct’ price – one that is affordable for those who pay, and is also fair for producers and distributers. It is a lot of work to make this is possible and we are always seeking new producers, consumers and volunteers.

An interface

Schnittstelle means interface – the purpose of this initiative. As well as a food distributer, Schnittstelle is a platform for exchange of information between rural and urban areas and producers and consumers. On our blog and in our newsletter we discuss and showcase alternatives to the dominant capitalist, agricultural system. We used to organise film events but now other groups in Berlin, with similar interests, continue this activity.

A box full of biodiversity

A recurring theme on our blog is agrobiodiversity, which is closely related to food sovereignty. In Germany, as in most parts of Europe, a considerable portion of the food we eat comes from abroad. People do not choose what they eat, they choose from the range of products presented to them. As well as talking about agrobiodiversity, the best way to achieve its conservation is by eating it.

The best way to achieve agrobiodiversity conservation is by eating it

Therefore, in 2012 we started a box scheme with crops that had long become rare in supermarkets and food outlets. We called it the ‘Biodiversity box scheme’. This box is delivered monthly to 50 subscribers. It is made up of unusual products, for example open pollinated vegetables, kamut (Triticum turanicum) pasta, fruit juice from old varieties, or rare seeds we obtain from small plant breeders. The boxes also include recipes and background information on these products so that people can learn about them. According to many subscribers this information is a highly valued part of the box.

Consumption for food sovereignty

The Biodiversity box scheme seeks to raise awareness of how our food choices greatly influence agrobiodiversity. For example, in the 19th century there were about 1000 wheat varieties in Germany, which were adapted to our regional climate and soil. Now, only 30 remain. According to the Federal Varieties Office, as of April 2013, 734 cereal varieties are approved for cultivation in Germany. That does not mean, however, that these all are cultivated. We wanted to focus people’s attention on this issue and welcomed the opportunity to support a small brewery in Lower Bavaria, the Riedenburger Brauhaus. They produce beers from neglected cereals: millet, einkorn wheat (Triticum monococcum), spelt and farro (Triticum dicoccon). Their beers are regularly included in the biodiversity boxes, and so is the bread made from ‘historical’ cereals produced by the bakers collective Backstube. The bread is so popular that this bakery has now included it in their regular product line.

Moreover, through our business model, we also want to make consumers aware of their power to bring people back to the centre of agriculture and to act on that power. In industrial agriculture, farmers are often relegated to pure commodity producers. The cultivation of diverse varieties, on the other hand, is less monotonous and the labour involved should be remunerated accordingly. But producers, who practice small scale, diverse agriculture, have little chance to assert themselves against companies and retailers who dictate low prices. Cooperatives like Schnittstelle, by shortening the chain and building a network, make it possible for these producers to be paid fairly. By directly supporting small scale producers who preserve our biodiversity, we exercise our right to define our own fair and diverse food system.

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India

Crop diversity makes school kids proud

Chandan’s grandmother is surprised to find her 10 year old grandson carefully taking down the recipe of jhungre ki kheer, a pudding made with barnyard millet, that she has not tasted in the past 30 years. Chandan is one of the children from Odhla High School, Govindpur participating in a traditional recipe competition conducted in their school by the Smallholder Innovation for Resilience (SIFOR) team. The programme has been working in five villages in the Kumaon Himalayas since 2012 to assess aspects of traditional agriculture, its climate preparedness and to support a revival of traditional crops. The effects of climate change, amongst other factors, have played a major role in many farmers’ decisions to give up farming and opt for regular wages, often in urban areas. This has taken its toll on many traditional grains and pulses, with some having completely disappeared. But, the past four years have seen progress, with some traditional crops regaining popularity, on farmers’ fields and in the newly setup community seedbank. Measures to ensure the long term success of this biodiversity revival include the involvement of existing institutions such as schools, as well as creating new ones like women’s self help groups and crop-protection committees.

The recipe competition engages kids to not only learn about his agricultural heritage but also become a successful farmer who is proud of the diversity of crops on his farm.

Contact Prakriti Mukerjee (mukerjee.prakriti@gmail.com).

Zambia

Bambara groundnut gets the attention it deserve

Bambara groundnut (Vigna subterranea), a legume crop indigenous to sub-Saharan Africa, is widespread amongst smallholders in Zambia. Farmers adapt cultivation techniques depending on their soil and climate. For instance, in drier regions it is planted next to termite mounds and in wetter regions on top of ridges. However, it is often outcompeted by crops such as maize and cassava. This prompted farmers to start experimenting three years ago. Concern Worldwide, an international NGO, facilitated the farmers’ experiments which also included cowpeas, soybeans and peanuts. One result was the high density at which Bambara groundnut can be successfully planted and that it is great for intercropping due to its drought tolerance. Beatrice Sepiso, a farmer from Kaoma district explains: “We would have to cultivate one lima (0.25 hectares) of lituu (Bambara groundnuts) the old way to achieve what was managed in two lines!” Access to enough seed and reducing the labour required to process the groundnut are two remaining challenges. As well, the cultural, nutritional and agronomic value of such indigenous foods needs to be celebrated in the national discourse around food sovereignty. Contact Paul Wagstaff (Paul.Wagstaff@concern.net).

Palestine

Seeds of resistance

Climate change, urban expansion of the Israeli settlement, and the dominance of hybrid seeds are putting many farmers’ traditional varieties and Palestine’s farming heritage at risk. This prompted Vivien Sansour to return home to the West Bank city of Beit Jala to start the ‘Palestinian Heirloom Seed Library’. While there is a seed bank in Palestine, established by the Union of Agricultural Work Committees in 2008, the library, sponsored by the Walid and Helen Kattan Science and Education Program and A.M. Qattan Foundation, combines science education and art. In the lead up to the library’s launch in June this year, Sansour conducted workshops with school teachers to find new ways to engage students in the process of retrieving, “their agri-cultural heritage.” Sansour: “We want to bring back the true meaning of talib (student in Arabic) to the classroom. We want our young generations to question and search for what is rightly theirs, an ancient ancestral heritage represented in seed and story that has kept us alive and well for millennia.” Sansour hopes that by building cultural links to their past and reversing the disappearance of their traditional plants, young Palestinians will strengthen the resistance of the occupation. At the launch, in Battir, guests were able to view the seed collection, the work of the students and teachers, as well as heirloom plant varieties growing on one of Battir’s world heritage site terraces.

Contact Silvia Sarapura Escobar (ssarapur@alumni.uoguelph.ca)

Peru

A chef-peasant alliance

In 2007, the Peruvian Gastronomy Society started promoting alliances between small scale farmers and chefs to bridge biodiversity and the culinary use of traditional Peruvian foods. This initiative, coined ‘the Chef and Peasant Alliance’, seeks to support small producers, artisanal fishermen, and peasant producers to link with Peru’s gastronomic sector. The main objective was to take action against the loss of agrobiodiversity and social inequality. Through the alliance’s promotion of local produce, farmers avoid intermediaries and obtain better prices for their products through direct commercialisation at weekly markets and food fairs. Cooks, chefs, and restaurateurs, on the other hand, profit from this business opportunity as they depend on agricultural products and the enormous diversity of traditional crops, tubers, and fruits. The alliance, moreover, serves as a platform for knowledge sharing where chefs and peasants learn from each other’s realities, needs, and aspirations and innovate new dishes and ways of producing. In this process, farmers gain awareness of how valuable their products are to their fellow Peruvians: during food fairs, farmers and their products receive a lot of attention from the media, the public, research organisations and NGOs. The fairs are not only a means of empowerment for farmers, but also a celebration of Andean agrobiodiversity.

Contact Silvia Sarapura Escobar (ssarapur@alumni.uoguelph.ca)

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While chickens forage in the undergrowth, Jawa Jalo tends a productive forest-like garden at his home in northern Thailand. About 0.16 ha in size, he established the plot in 2003 on degraded land adjoining his home. It contains 27 different crop varieties, the majority being indigenous non-timber forest product (NTFP) species. The dense, multi-storey planting of trees, vines, and shrubs provide Jawa (a resident of the Red Lahu community of Huai Pong) with a constant supply of food and fibre, both for household consumption and the market.

The Red Lahu, Palaung, Akha, Lisu, and Karen are amongst many ethnic groups residing in the Sri Lanna National Park, in Chiang Mai province. Originally rooted in neighbouring Myanmar, many of these communities fled armed conflict more than three decades ago and sought refuge in Thailand. Migrant communities in Thailand are routinely marginalised by the local population and suffer limited and uncertain access to farmland.

Innovation born out of need

NTFP species are almost always included in home gardens. Photo: Rick Burnette
Before the establishment of the National Park in 1989, local farmers practiced shifting cultivation, with fallow cycles of up to nine years, growing mainly upland rice and other crops, such as sesame, chillies, cowpea and pigeon pea. Access to forests enables this traditional form of farming and helps to supplement household nutrition, as well as provide medicines, construction materials, and other products. However, environmental degradation and legal restrictions progressively weakened traditional forest-based livelihoods. With ever greater restrictions on shifting cultivation in northern Thailand, existing forest-fallow periods are increasingly brief, often only a few years. And households are now restricted to small plots of untitled land that was cleared decades ago.To cope with diminishing access to forest resources, other hill tribe communities outside of the Sri Lanna Park began family agroforestry plots for the production of NTFPs. For instance, while cultivating traditional field crops, some farmers have integrated forest species as another source of edibles in their fallowed fields. These NTFPs often include rattan (Calamus and Daemonorops spp.), valued for fibre and edible shoots, as well as prickly ash (Zanthoxylum rhetsa) which produces a marketable spice.

But indigenous NTFP species were not only integrated into fallowed fields, people also started to grow them in their home gardens. The migrant Palaung communities are among the most recent arrivals and face particularly limited access to farmland and forest products. As a result, many families began planting indigenous species around their homes. These included perennial vegetables such as snowflake tree (Trevesia palmata), rattan, cluster fig (Ficus racemosa), red shoot fig (Ficus virens), and climbing acacia (Acacia pennata).

Farmer-to-farmer learning

Access to forest resources helps supplement household nutrition

Inspired by these locally developed approaches, the Upland Holistic Development Project has been promoting community driven NTFP agroforestry in northern Thailand since 1999. The project supports farmer-tofarmer exchange where households already practicing some form of agroforestry offer models for other farmers to learn from. These households provide inspiration and offer assistance to newly established communities. For example, they provide planting materials, practical information and encouragement. Some of the farmers also host demonstration plots. As a result, the newcomer communities, which often settle in environmentally degraded areas, have begun to explore and experiment with indigenous forest species in their home gardens.

A fine line

NTFP species play a significant role in the regional economy. Photo: Rick Burnette
NTFPs are often managed and harvested at a subsistence level and are not usually considered to be important crops, particularly in comparison to major regional commodities such as rice and maize. But the hill tribe farmers in northern Thailand prove the opposite. NTFPs, which play a significant role in the regional economy and in household food and nutritional security, are often long-domesticated crops derived from the forests of the region – for example, longan (Dimocarpus longan), bael fruit (Aegle marmelos), and prickly ash. These domesticated species also help to preserve local cuisines and culture, while contributing to regional biodiversity and forest preservation. Almost always included in backyard home gardens, NTFPs are not only for household consumption, but sold in markets. These may include annual and perennial vegetables and fruits such as climbing acacia leaves, salae flower buds (Broussonetia kurzii), rattan shoots, ivy gourd shoots (Coccinia grandis), fronds of vegetable fern (Diplazium esculentum), spiny lasia leaves (Lasia spinosa), cassod tree leaves, bael fruit and Burmese grape (Baccaurea ramiflora).Moreover, NTFPs are often established on permanent upland fields among fruit trees, with density and variety needed to create a multi-storied structure. Larger trees form the canopy and smaller NTFP species grow in between or underneath the canopy and use the larger trees for support. In more remote locations where short-cultivation, long-fallow swidden cycles still exist, the opportunity to improve fallows with useful NTFP species – such as tea (Camellia sinensis), rattan, prickly ash, fan palm (Livistona sp.), black sugar palm (Arenga westerhoutii), and leguminous species such as the cassod tree (Senna siamea), lablab (Lablab purpureus), and rice bean (Vigna umbellata) – increases the value of the fallow by maximising and diversifying agroforestry production and improving soils.

NTFPs offer year-round production

Factors of success

Indigenous and naturalised forest species are valued for inclusion in agroforestry systems because they require few, if any, external inputs. Next to the Sri Lanna National Park, cultivation of NTFPs is successful where, for most communities, shifting cultivation is no longer an option. Depending on the diversity of plantings and the seasonal productivity of each crop, NTFPs are also able to offer year-round production, which gives them an advantage over annual crops. They are, moreover, products that are suited to local tastes and needs, some of which are readily marketable. Amongst these communities, cultivation of NTFPs has also been widely adopted thanks to the sustained support for farmer-to-farmer exchanges from local and international NGOs and civil society.

A growing forest

Although Jawo Jalo has not kept accurate records of establishment or maintenance costs of his garden, his income has increased substantially since 2008 from sales of NTFPs – primarily rattan and fishtail-palm shoots, as well as vegetables. Nearby farmers report increased income from NTFPs as well. One of these farmers is Mr. Namsaeng Loongmuang from Pang Daeng Nai, a nearby migrant community. He cultivates a 0.64 ha agroforestry plot similar to Mr. Jalo’s. He also promotes agroforestry, hosting an average of 10 groups per year with visitors coming from more than six countries.

In the meantime, approximately 190 families have established NTFPs in their home gardens, diversified permanent upland fields, or mixed orchards. Another 88 households have adopted and maintained backyard gardens with NTFP crops. NTFP-focused agroforestry is proving to be a viable option amongst migrant communities in northern Thailand struggling to sustain upland cultivation and access to land. At this rate, it can be expected that this option will continue to spread, in northern Thailand and to neighbouring countries where groups face similar landuse pressures.

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The commercial potential of native plant foods in Australia (‘bush foods’) has boomed over the past 50 years. Markets are growing for around 15-20 species, including macadamia, lemon myrtle and Quandong. There is room for everyone involved, including researchers, traders, manufacturers and consumers, to better recognise and respect the role of Aboriginal peoples as custodians of their traditional resources and associated knowledge.For Aboriginal peoples, the remote desert represents a cultural, nutritional and medicinal lifeline. Native plant and animal species feature in important songs, stories, ceremonies and trade. Wild harvesting of native plants is a way to practice and pass on knowledge that has sustained species and peoples for millennia. Customary laws regulate the use of, and the knowledge associated with, these plants. Compliance with these is core to Aboriginal culture and wellbeing.

The emerging industry relies on Aboriginal knowledge, documented by researchers since colonisation. Valuable knowledge includes plants that are safe to eat, preferred growing conditions, and harvest and post-harvest techniques. This knowledge, often published without consent, would otherwise take years to obtain.

Mainstream commercial interest creates an economic opportunity for Aboriginal peoples, but their capacity to realise these is constrained by the impact of desert weather on wild harvest yields, and limited access to land, water, technology, training, buyers, finance, transport, and business advice. On top of these practical challenges is limited legal support. Key issues include the prioritisation of horticultural production over wild harvest, which may exclude women harvesters, and the lack of requirement for people to obtain traditional custodian consent prior to development and share profits with the peoples whose knowledge is being used.

‘Business as usual’ approaches to the development of new species are likely to prolong these inequities. This underpins the call by a group of remote Aboriginal women for a set of commercial principles based on respect and support for Aboriginal interests (read more). Complementary legal measures might help level the commercial playing field. They could include a timelimited right for Aboriginal peoples to exclusively develop species not yet commercialised, and mechanisms to ensure Aboriginal peoples with a cultural connection to a species receive royalties from its commercialisation. An ongoing conversation amongst people involved in the industry would likely generate more ideas to help markets for new species develop in a fair and equitable way – one that fairly acknowledges, respects and remunerates Aboriginal peoples’ relationships and contributions to bush food.

Kylie Lingard (klingar2@une.edu.au) is a researcher at the University of New England, Australia. She explores strategies to support the interests of Indigenous peoples in the commercialisation of traditional plant foods.

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Simran Sethi. 2015. HarperOne 352 pages. ISBN: 9780061581076

“The following is about food, but it’s really about love.” Over the past few decades, our diets have changed drastically. 95 % of the world’s calories now come from only thirty species of crops. Naturally, this has vast implications for biodiversity worldwide. In her book, award-winning author Simran Sethi draws on interviews with multiple food experts and practitioners to explain how we got to this point in our food system and, equally important, how we can take action. The author challenges the reader to learn more about what kinds of different foods are available. That is why this book is also about love; it is a journey into the extraordinary flavours and aromas of rich biodiversity. It helps us re-appreciate what is on our plates, what it is made of and where it comes from. Through awareness raising, Sethi aims to start a revolution and to increase biodiversity of the world’s agricultural system.

Where our food comes from – Retracing Nikolay Vavilov’s quest to end famine

Gary Paul Nabhan. 2008. Island Press 264 pages. ISBN: 9781610910033

Gary Paul Nabhan takes us on a journey to recognise the work of Nikolay Vavilov’s quest to solve the Russian famines in the 1940s amidst a Communist state. He travels to five continents, where Vavilov collected thousands of seeds and documented more than just the plants that our domesticated foods of today originated from. Nabhan retraces Vavilov’s footsteps, documenting the irreversible genetic erosion in these agrobiodiversity hotspots. He also speaks with the local farmers and scientists working to prevent the loss of our remaining plant genetic resources. Comparing the notes made by Vavilov over half a century ago, reveals how much diversity has already been lost. Shifts in agricultural practices and traditions are explored by Nabhan from an international political ecology context; these findings are valuable for the health and survival of humanity.

Restoring heritage grains: The culture, biodiversity, resilience, and cuisine of ancient wheats

Eli Rogosa. Available July, 2016. Chelsea Green Publisihing 272 pages. ISBN: 9781603586702

Author Eli Rogosa found her passion in the Middle East, working with farmers in the Fertile Crescent to preserve the treasure of ancient landrace wheat. Newly introduced with this forgotten source of biodiversity in grains, she began dedicating her work towards valorising these ancient grains such as Indian wheat, or shot, a drought-tolerant and high-protein grain. Backed with years of knowledge and experience working with these grains from her biodiverse farm to her artisan bakery, Eli’s story inspires one to explore our co-evolution with ancient grains and how these ancient grains offer a solution to enjoying high quality breads once again. Her compelling story will inspire the readers to reconnect the importance of these endangered species from the fields to our diets and provide the tools to help us participate in finding our connection with the first crop humans domesticated.

Pulse of life, the rich biodiversity of edible legumes

Vandana Shiva. 2016. Navdanya. ISBN: 9788181582720

This book is an offering to the International Year of the Pulses and to commemorate the 30th anniversary year of Navdanya. The book draws our attention to the negative effects of the industrial farming systems that have developed in the last few decades by referencing to the rise of monocultures and high external input farming. As a response to those negative effects, the authors celebrate pulses and the characteristics of pulses that contribute to a more sustainable, just and healthy food system. They aim to reconnect the reader not only to the diversity in pulses and legumes, but also to the rich diversity in processing, cooking methods and ecological uses of these crops.

West African women defending traditional palm oil

GRAIN. 2016. 13:50 min. https://www.grain.org/e/5467

This video by GRAIN portrays artisanal palm oil production in West Africa, an agroecological practice threatened by industrial oil palm plantations. In recent times, industrial palm oil production has been moving rapidly into Africa. This has brought monocultures and disrupted the livelihoods of people who rely on healthy ecosystems. This video shows the fight for the traditions behind palm oil in West and Central Africa, where small peasants are resisting conformity thanks to the women-led traditional processing. From their community-based food system, the end product is a bright red oil; a cultural keystone opposed to what the world market has accustomed us to, a colourless, odourless oil from which the industry makes large profit.

More on traditional plants

In this box, we have included a few web resources and a publication offering simple actions to bring the conservation of agrobiodiversity into our own hands.
 
Ark of taste (Slow Food) The ark of taste is an online catalogue encompassing over 3200 foods and food processing techniques at risk of disappearing that are a part of the world’s cultural heritage. The catalogue includes suggestions to save these endangered foods.
http:// www.fondazioneslowfood.com/en/category/ark-of-taste/
 
Recipe catalogue (World Vegetable Center) The World Vegetable Center offers a collection of downloadable recipes to prepare and enjoy traditional recipes for East Asian and African vegetables.
http://avrdc.org/publications/ recipes/
 
Valuing crop diversity (LEISA Magazine 20.1, 2004). This past issue of Farming Matters discusses how the continuously narrowing base for global food security limits the options available to farmers, and threatens agrobiodiversity.
http://www.agriculturesnetwork. org/magazines/ global/valuing-crop-diversity

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Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) is a cultivated grain crop that originates in the Andes. Thanks to its high genetic diversity, the crop grows under extreme climate and soil conditions and is tolerant to frost, drought, and salinity. Its popularity worldwide is the result of a combination of its hardiness and nutritional content. After centuries of neglect, the potential of quinoa was rediscovered during the secondhalf of the 20th century. Since then, the number of countries importing quinoa increased, and quinoa is cultivated in countries outside the Andes.

The United Nations declared 2013 International Year of Quinoa as recognition of the role of the Andean peoples in maintaining quinoa biodiversity and of the grain’s high nutritional value. The rapid expansion of this crop, which is still classified by some as a neglected and underutilised species, is defying the belief that it only grows at altitude on the banks of Lake Titicaca, between Peru and Bolivia. Today, nearly 100 countries around the world are growing or testing quinoa. This boom is bringing about great changes to the way quinoa is produced, to the networks that test it, to distribution and to the way it is perceived and incorporated into our diet.

Among the numerous challenges related to expansion of quinoa, this article focuses on the maintenance and valorisation of quinoa diversity. Is the way in which we cultivate, trade and eat quinoa contributing to maintaining and increasing its genetic diversity? Is this benefiting peasant producers? Some ways forward for quinoa are proposed, providing general insights for other, so called, neglected and underutilised species.

Genetic evolution

Since its domestication over 7000 years ago, quinoa seed exchange has allowed the initial genetic diversity of the species to increase, resulting in five major ecotypes in the Andes today. As far back as the 19th century, seeds were already being exchanged with India, later with Kenya and Tibet, and from the 1980s-90s with the whole of Europe. Presently, quinoa is seen as an interesting alternative crop in semi-arid environments in the Mediterranean, Middle East and Asia, in soils that have often been abandoned due to high salinity levels.
Farmers in the Andes use genetic, species and ecosystem diversity. Photo: Didier Bazile

Diversity and communities under pressure

A clear majority of Andean communities grow quinoa using so called ‘traditional’ practices, based on principles of agroecology, using three components of biodiversity: genetic diversity, species diversity and ecosystem diversity.

Farmers and researchers only have access to a few varieties

However, the spread of cultivation of quinoa to all continents and the increasing regional and global demand for the crop takes place through the introduction of so called ‘conventional’ or industrial agricultural models employing chemical fertilizers, pesticides and improved varieties. This is causing several problems. As a result of the globalised quinoa value chains, and in particular due to international seed regulations, farmers and researchers outside the Andes only have access to a few improved varieties of quinoa that are suitable for mechanised cultivation and post-harvest processing. At the same time, Andean peasant systems are at risk of destabilisation as intensified and expanded cultivation of quinoa is a source of potential conflicts around access to land, practice standardisation, market competitiveness, etc.

The rapid shift from a subsistence economy to a market economy has also accelerated the breakdown of some community organisations, which previously managed land and collective access to resources. For example, conflicts have emerged when farmers wishing to mechanise quinoa production attempted to move into the plains that had until then been used for llama and alpaca breeding; when former migrants asserted their ancestral rights to land; or when families decided to extend their cultivated areas and shorten fallow periods. Since the 1990s organic certification, and more recently fairtrade networks, have supported better remuneration for producers and a commitment to support authentic production. But can these standards support cultivation and conservation of quinoa diversity?

Protecting peasant varieties

Quinoa’s broad uses

While today the global general public knows quinoa for its edible grains, other uses exist in the Andean countries: the consumption of the young leaves and sometimes also the tender panicles in the same way as huauzontle (Chenopodium berlandieri), and also as animal fodder (fresh or as silage).

Additionally, quinoa is used in traditional medicine, and the use of its leaves, stems and grains is currently being studied for their abortive, healing, anti-inflammatory, analgesic and disinfectant properties. Similarly, the saponin, which previously caused the crop’s rejection, is currently under investigation for its natural insecticide and antifungal properties. These broad uses of quinoa contribute to its great genetic diversity, as is often the case for traditional plants.

Agrobiodiversity exists solely because it has been created and maintained by human practices that preserve local varieties. Local varieties are also known as peasant varieties or, in scientific terms, as variety populations. This refers to groups of genetically unique individual plant species that share certain characteristics which distinguishes them from other peasant varieties.

The large genetic diversity within peasant varieties, as opposed to the uniformity within improved varieties, enables farmers to reduce risk and achieve a stable average yield. Access to a broad range of varieties is essential for being able to make cropping decisions in response to climate and soil conditions, technical constraints, personal preferences, or market demands.

Genetic diversity loss is typical within conventional plant improvement processes that seek to move away from heterogeneity within variety populations and towards emphasising characteristics that are deemed important. In the case of drought resistance or better soil salinity tolerance, varietal selection favours characteristics that have nothing to do with nutritional properties or other characteristics that would allow the species to adapt to a new environment. Similarly, current quinoa selection and improvement focussed on several nutritional criteria runs the risk of a drift towards biofortification.

However, it is actually the overall balance of quinoa’s composition that must be preserved. This will allow farmers to have production stability through active conservation of the species. The implementation of multi-criteria plant breeding linking yield, disease resistance and nutritional value hinges on making compromises between these different factors in order to drive varietal improvement. And in fact, this is what peasants have always done.

Knowledge cross-pollination

Participatory breeding initiatives, and in particular Evolutionary Plant Breeding, allow knowledge crosspollination by placing trust, from the outset, in peasant farmers to integrate a new species or variety into their farming system. This type of plant breeding also considers the development of new variety populations, capable of evolving and adapting to their environment, which simultaneously guarantees production stability and active conservation of the species’ genetic resources.

While moving away from standardisation of crop varieties, their protection must also be questioned as it impedes the pursuit of biodiversity creation. In this sense, current regulations pertaining to germplasm flow and plant variety rights are problematic for the evolution of quinoa diversity.

Free flow of germplasm

The combination of international regulations governing the spread of quinoa germplasm does not promote easy and fair access to quinoa’s genetic resources. Further, it creates a situation where most researchers outside of the Andes are experimenting with a very narrow genetic base.

Real tracking of the spread of quinoa germplasm would enable the origin of the seeds for quinoa experiments to be ascertained, and demonstrate the importance of individuals and networks of research institutions in genetic material exchange outside of any legal framework. More transparency in these flows may provide greater recognition of peasants’ breeding efforts and generate questions about the efficiency of the current regulations.

Undoubtedly, free circulation of genetic resources for biodiversity development would help to overcome the complex discussions regarding their intellectual property. When we think inside a system it is always difficult to imagine that another system could exist. However, models of free access to seeds by a group of users united under a common charter could transform how we think about seed regulation. Alternative models would allow us to put forward a single conceptual framework for the different seed users, but all committed to crop development through processes that preserve, if not increase, biodiversity. The Open Seed Source License is one example and the Global Collaborative Network on Quinoa, which I am currently developing, both have the goal to unite a community of practice, including farmers, researchers and private selectors, around preserving and creating more biodiversity while using it.

New ways of doing science

Analysing the changes in progress, whilst simultaneously being an actor, requires specific methodologies related to oversight and multidisciplinarity if we truly wish to promote quinoa within a global agroecological shift that considers agricultural biodiversity in all its dimensions. Role-play games and participatory modelling are helpful tools for facilitating dialogue and accompanying the process of innovation.

The evolution of quinoa is happening before our eyes

Treating quinoa cultivation in the Andes as not only a localised system, but as an agroecological model, can connect our thinking to a geographic process and generate new knowledge that is useful for other species, such as amaranth, chia, fonio or teff. These are following a similar development pattern, albeit one that is less reported by the media.

History in the making for the agroecological transition

Conflicts related to decreased access to and on-farm management of quinoa genetic diversity questions the viability of the coexistence of agroecological and industrial models of farming and food systems. Certain countries are reflecting on the possible coexistence of these two models and such distinction in public policies already exists in several countries, including Peru.

In summary, because the evolution of quinoa is happening before our eyes, it provides a unique opportunity to analyse whether these two competing production models should, or even can co-exist. Unlike the development of other cultivated species, we do not have to rely on reconstructions. With quinoa, we have the opportunity to act and to test various agricultural theories. It is possible to measure the effects of different policies and standards – ecological, economic and social – on biodiversity dynamics and reflect on the implication for agricultural models (conventional versus agroecology).

In this sense we can take the study of the dynamics of quinoa’s genetic diversity as a model for studying those of other neglected or underutilised species. We can use this opportunity to push for an agroecological transition rooted in agricultural biodiversity.
Didier Bazile (didier.bazile@cirad.fr) is an agroecologist with a PhD in Rural Geography. He works at the GREEN Research Unit of the Centre de cooperation Internationale en Recherche Agronomique pour le Développement, CIRAD – France.

Further reading:

Bazile D., Jacobsen S.E., Verniau A. 2016. The global expansion of quinoa: Trends and limits. Frontiers in Plant Science, 7 (622) 6p.  http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2016.00622

Murphy K., Bazile D., Kellogg J., Rahmanian M. 2016. Development of a worldwide consortium on evolutionary participatory breeding in quinoa. Frontiers in Plant Science, 7 (608) : 7 p. <http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2016.00608

Bazile D. (ed.), Bertero H.D. (ed.), Nieto C. (ed.). 2015. State of the art report on quinoa around the world in 2013. Rome : FAO, CIRAD, 603 p. http://www.fao.org/3/a-i4042e.pdf

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Bedouins and herders, like this Palestinian family in the Jordan Valley, depend on adequate access to resources, including land and water, to support their traditional livelihoods. Photo: David Levine/Oxfam
Pastoralist communities have no or limited access to critical resources such as land, water, central markets and veterinary services to sustain their traditional livelihoods. Their livelihoods are further at risk from the ever hotter, drier and less predictable weather due to strong indications of climate change in the region.

Although these groups have traditionally been able to cope with scarce natural resources, they now face intensifying threats to food security and sustainable growth in the midst of a particularly weak institutional environment. Currently, local and national institutions lack adequate policies and legislation that supports the agricultural and livestock sectors. By increasing the engagement on policy issues of pastoralist communities their voices could be heard in mainstream socio-economic life and their traditional ways of life become more sustainable.

In 2012, Oxfam, the Regional Office for West Asia (ROWA) of IUCN (International Union for Conservation of Nature) and ILEIA, joined forces with local partners in the Occupied Palestinian Territory (OPT), Jordan and Egypt to promote participation of pastoralist groups in policy decision processes that affect them.

Working together

Accessing quality services, land and water, credit and central markets are key needs and lack of organisation and advocacy knowledge are critical constraints that prevent needs from being met and pastoralists’ rights respected. Therefore, Oxfam, IUCN ROWA and ILEIA are supporting these communities to strengthen their communications, organisational and networking capacities to encourage dialogue with policy makers and other key government agencies, NGOs and private sector stakeholders.

This work is made possible through strong collaboration with local partners and institutions that are formed by practitioners and representatives from the pastoralist population. In Jordan and Egypt, the project team is working towards consolidating platforms of Bedouin and herders’ communities at the local and national levels. In the OPT, the creation of national platforms for mobile pastoralists is premature due to greater social and political fragmentation and the protracted Israeli occupation. Because of this, partners in the OPT, the Palestinian Agricultural Cooperatives Union (PACU), the Palestinian Livestock Development Centre (PLDC), and the Union for Agricultural Work Committees (UAWC), are focused on the establishment of a future national platform Their approach is two-fold: promoting the role of Palestinian partner organisations as bearers of mobile pastoralists’ interests and engaging these organisations in sub-national meetings with other stakeholders. The result will be a network of practitioners, a critical first step towards the creation of a representative platform.

The number of people benefiting from the project makes up a significant portion of the total pastoralist population across the three countries. 1500 families in the OPT, 200 in Jordan and 17,500 in Egypt are being supported to build and share knowledge, and to make their voices heard in policy making.Not only are people at the grassroots level benefiting from the project, local authorities, NGOs and government agencies are also gain from their involvement in the knowledge building and policy influencing processes. They gain a better understanding of the issues pastoralists face and the changes needed for sectorwide improvements.

Participants are learning to jointly identify common problems and needs, develop collaborative strategies for addressing challenges through policy dialogue and effectively reach out to other local, national and international partners.

In an environment of high uncertainty, improved connection and collaboration among different groups as well as the relevant authorities increases the prospect of traditional ways of life being sustained for mobile pastoralists. The project team is currently supporting local organisations (12 in the OPT, two in Jordan and one in Egypt) to implement tangible and innovative initiatives to concretely link planning to advocacy, to create more engaged communities and raise and strengthen their voices to help solve the daily problems they face.

Sharing lessons learnt

More insights and lessons learnt on food security governance of mobile pastoralist groups in the OPT, Jordan and Egypt can be expected in the coming months. ILEIA, Oxfam and the World Initiative for Sustainable Pastoralism (WISP) of IUCN will continue to share information on this initiative’s progress.

This article is part of the visibility and communications work being carried out under the framework of the Food Security Governance of Bedouin Pastoralist Groups in the Mashreq project, funded by the European Union. The contents of this publication are the sole responsibility of Oxfam, IUCN and ILEIA and can in no way be taken to reflect the views of the European Union.

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